Autism Spectrum Disorders: State-of-the-Art (Review)

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of disorders, the occurrence of which is associated with the impairment of brain development. Typical for them are difficulties in social interaction and communication.

Current epidemiological aspects of autistic disorders, methods of their diagnosis and correction as well as risk factors of the disease development are considered in the review. Numerous investigations confirm that timely identification of autistic disorders and child inclusion in the programs of early intervention may be the basis of effective rehabilitation and will be able to improve the prognosis for their socialization. High prevalence of autism spectrum disorders requires active work on designing screening procedures, creating scientifically grounded and standardized normative routing system for this category of patients, and implementing countrywide the programs rendering aid to children with this pathology and their parents.

1. Hallmayer J., Cleveland S., Torres A., Phillips J., Cohen B., Torigoe T., Miller J., Fedele A., Collins J., Smith K., Lotspeich L., Croen L.A., Ozonoff S., Lajonchere C., Grether J.K., Risch N. Genetic heritability and shared environmental factors among twin pairs with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011; 68(11): 1095–1102, https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.76.
2. Elder J.H., Kreider C.M., Brasher S.N., Ansell M. Clinical impact of early diagnosis of autism on the prognosis and parent-child relationships. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2017; 10: 283–292, https://doi.org/10.2147/prbm.s117499.
3. Volkmar F.R. Editorial: the importance of early intervention. J Autism Dev Disord 2014; 44(12): 2979–2980, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2265-9.
4. Elder J.H., Brasher S., Alexander B. Identifying the barriers to early diagnosis and treatment in underserved individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and their families: a qualitative study. Issues Ment Health Nurs 2016; 37(6): 412–420, https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840.2016.1153174.
5. Carter A.S., Messinger D.S., Stone W.L., Celimli S., Nahmias A.S., Yoder P. A randomized controlled trial of Hanen’s ‘More Than Words’ in toddlers with early autism symptoms. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2011; 52(7): 741–752, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02395.x.
6. Landa R.J., Holman K.C., O’Neill A.H., Stuart E.A. Intervention targeting development of socially synchronous engagement in toddlers with autism spectrum disorder: a randomized controlled trial. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2011; 52(1): 13–21, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02288.x.
7. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Pub; 2013, https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.
8. Sixty-seventh World Health Assembly. Comprehensive and coordinated efforts for the management of autism spectrum disorders. Geneva; 2014. URL: https://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA67/A67_17-en.pdf.
9. Autism Speaks. Autism and health: a special report by Autism Speaks. 2017. URL: https://www.autismspeaks.org/sites/default/ files/2018-09/autism-and-health-report.pdf.
10. Taylor J.L., Dove D., Veenstra-VanderWeele J., Sathe N.A., McPheeters M.L., Jerome R.N., Warren Z. Interventions for adolescents and young adults with autism spectrum disorders. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2012. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK107275.
11. Murphy C.M., Wilson C.E., Robertson D.M., Ecker C., Daly E.M., Hammond N., Galanopoulos A., Dud I., Murphy D.G., McAlonan G.M. Autism spectrum disorder in adults: diagnosis, management, and health services development. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2016; 12: 1669–1686, https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s65455.
12. Whitaker A. Special educational needs in England: January 2014. URL: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ file/362704/SFR26-2014_SEN_06102014.pdf.
13. Baio J., Wiggins L., Christensen D.L., Maenner M.J., Daniels J., Warren Z., Kurzius-Spencer M., Zahorodny W., Robinson Rosenberg C., White T., Durkin M.S., Imm P., Nikolaou L., Yeargin-Allsopp M., Lee L.C., Harrington R., Lopez M., Fitzgerald R.T., Hewitt A., Pettygrove S., Constantino J.N., Vehorn A., Shenouda J., Hall-Lande J., Van Naarden Braun K., Dowling N.F. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years — autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveill Summ 2018; 67(6): 1–23, https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6706a1.
14. Rice C.E., Rosanoff M., Dawson G., Durkin M.S., Croen L.A., Singer A., Yeargin-Allsopp M. Evaluating changes in the prevalence of the autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Public Health Rev 2012; 34(2): 1–22, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03391685.
15. Miller J.S., Bilder D., Farley M., Coon H., Pinborough-Zimmerman J., Jenson W., Rice C.E., Fombonne E., Pingree C.B., Ritvo E., Ritvo R.A., McMahon W.M. Autism spectrum disorder reclassified: a second look at the 1980s Utah/UCLA autism epidemiologic study. J Autism Dev Disord 2013; 43(1): 200–210, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1566-0.
16. Hansen S.N., Schendel D.E., Parner E.T. Explaining the increase in the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders: the proportion attributable to changes in reporting practices. JAMA Pediatr 2015; 169(1): 56–62, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.1893.
17. World Health Organization. Autism spectrum disorders. 2019. URL: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/ detail/autism-spectrum-disorders.
18. Biziukevich S.V. Assessment of the severity of autism spectrum disorders in children with general developmental disorders. Smolenskij medicinskij alʹmanah 2017; 1: 32–36.
19. Crespi B.J. Autism as a disorder of high intelligence. Front Neurosci 2016; 10: 300, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00300.
20. Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year 2006 Principal Investigators; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders — autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, United States, 2006. MMWR Surveill Summ 2009; 58(10): 1–20.
21. Loomes R., Hull L., Mandy W.P.L. What is the male-to-female ratio in autism spectrum disorder? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2017; 56(6): 466–474, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.03.013.
22. Russell G., Steer C., Golding J. Social and demographic factors that influence the diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2011; 46(12): 1283–1293, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0294-z.
23. Gould J., Ashton-Smith J. Missed diagnosis or misdiagnosis? Girls and women on the autism spectrum. Good Autism Practice (GAP) 2011; 12(1): 34–41.
24. Elsabbagh M., Divan G., Koh Y.J., Kim Y.S., Kauchali S., Marcín C., Montiel-Nava C., Patel V., Paula C.S., Wang C., Yasamy M.T., Fombonne E. Global prevalence of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Autism Res 2012; 5(3): 160–179, https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.239.
25. Statistika autizma v mire [Autism statistics in the world]. URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0294-z.
26. Dokukina T.V., Marchuk S.A. Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of autism spectrum disorders in the Republic of Belarus. Vestnik Soveta molodyh uchenyh i specialistov Chelabinskoj oblasti 2016; 3(2): 51–55.
27. Kent R.G., Carrington S.J., Le Couteur A., Gould J., Wing L., Maljaars J., Noens I., van Berckelaer-Onnes I., Leekam S.R. Diagnosing autism spectrum disorder: who will get a DSM-5 diagnosis? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2013; 54(11): 1242–1250, https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12085.
28. Wiggins L.D., Tian L.H., Levy S.E., Rice C., Lee L.C., Schieve L., Pandey J., Daniels J., Blaskey L., Hepburn S., Landa R., Edmondson-Pretzel R., Thompson W. Homogeneous subgroups of young children with autism improve phenotypic characterization in the study to explore early development. J Autism Dev Disord 2017; 47(11): 3634–3645, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3280-4.
29. Sandin S., Lichtenstein P., Kuja-Halkola R., Larsson H., Hultman C.M., Reichenberg A. The familial risk of autism. JAMA 2014; 311(17): 1770–1777, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.4144.
30. Muhle R., Trentacoste S.V., Rapin I. The genetics of autism. Pediatrics 2004; 113(5): e472–e486, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.113.5.e472.
31. Robinson E.B., Lichtenstein P., Anckarsäter H., Happé F., Ronald A. Examining and interpreting the female protective effect against autistic behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110(13): 5258–5262, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1211070110.
32. Schendel D., Bhasin T.K. Birth weight and gestational age characteristics of children with autism, including a comparison with other developmental disabilities. Pediatrics 2008; 121(6): 1155–1164, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-1049.
33. Zavadenko N.N., Davydova L.A. Prematurity and low birth weight as risk factors for neurodevelopmental disorders in children. Rossiyskiy vestnik perinatologii i pediatrii 2018; 63(4), https://doi.org/10.21508/1027-4065-2018-63-4-43-51.
34. Lampi K.M., Lehtonen L., Tran P.L., Suominen A., Lehti V., Banerjee P.N., Gissler M., Brown A.S., Sourander A. Risk of autism spectrum disorders in low birth weight and small for gestational age infants. J Pediatr 2012; 161: 830–836, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.04.058.
35. Wu S., Wu F., Ding Y., Hou J., Bi J., Zhang Z. Advanced parental age and autism risk in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2017; 135(1): 29–41, https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12666.
36. Gardener H., Spiegelman D., Buka S.L. Perinatal and neonatal risk factors for autism: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2011; 128(2): 344–355, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-1036.
37. Xu G., Jing J., Bowers K., Liu B., Bao W. Maternal diabetes and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in the offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Autism Dev Disord 2014; 44(4): 766–775, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1928-2.
38. Hsiao E.Y., Patterson P.H. Placental regulation of maternal-fetal interactions and brain development. Dev Neurobiol 2012; 72(10): 1317–1326, https://doi.org/10.1002/dneu.22045.
39. Aoshi T., Koyama S., Kobiyama K., Akira S., Ishii K.J. Innate and adaptive immune responses to viral infection and vaccination. Curr Opin Virol 2011; 1(4): 226–232, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2011.07.002.
40. Brown A.S. Epidemiologic studies of exposure to prenatal infection and risk of schizophrenia and autism. Dev Neurobiol 2012; 72(10): 1272–1276, https://doi.org/10.1002/dneu.22024.
41. Müllegger R.R., Glatz M. Hautinfektionen in der Schwangerschaft [Skin infections in pregnancy]. Hautarzt 2010; 61(12): 1034–1039, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00105-010-2066-9.
42. Wu S., Ding Y., Wu F., Li R., Xie G., Hou J., Mao P. Family history of autoimmune diseases is associated with an increased risk of autism in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 55: 322–332, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.05.004.
43. Steinberg M.L., Boulet S., Kissin D., Warner L., Jamieson D.J. Elective single embryo transfer trends and predictors of a good perinatal outcome — United States, 1999 to 2010. Fertil Steril 2013; 99(7): 1937–1943, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.01.134.
44. Sullivan E.A., Zegers-Hochschild F., Mansour R., Ishihara O., de Mouzon J., Nygren K.G., Adamson G.D. International Committee for Monitoring Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ICMART) world report: assisted reproductive technology 2004. Hum Reprod 2013; 28(5): 1375–1390, https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/det036.
45. Kissin D.M., Zhang Y., Boulet S.L., Fountain C., Bearman P., Schieve L., Yeargin-Allsopp M., Jamieson D.J. Association of assisted reproductive technology (ART) treatment and parental infertility diagnosis with autism in ART-conceived children. Hum Reprod 2014; 30(2): 454–465, https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deu338.
46. Scheibner V., Hancock B. Autism. 2001. URL: http://www.whale.to/vaccine/sch.html.
47. Barile J.P., Kuperminc G.P., Weintraub E.S., Mink J.W., Thompson W.W. Thimerosal exposure in early life and neuropsychological outcomes 7–10 years later. J Pediatr Psychol 2011; 37(1): 106–118, https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsr048.
48. Price C.S., Thompson W.W., Goodson B., Weintraub E.S., Croen L.A., Hinrichsen V.L., Marcy M., Robertson A., Eriksen E., Lewis E., Bernal P., Shay D., Davis R.L., DeStefano F. Prenatal and infant exposure to thimerosal from vaccines and immunoglobulins and risk of autism. Pediatrics 2010; 126(4): 656–664, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-0309.
49. Measles-mumps-rubella vaccine and autistic spectrum disorder: a hypothesis only. Paediatr Child Health 2001; 6(6): 387–395, https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/6.6.387.
50. Strauss B., Bigham M. Does measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccination cause inflammatory bowel disease and autism? Can Commun Dis Rep 2001; 27(8): 65–72.
51. Taylor L.E., Swerdfeger A.L., Eslick G.D. Vaccines are not associated with autism: an evidence-based meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies. Vaccine 2014; 32(29): 3623–3629, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.04.085.
52. Adams J.B., Audhya T., McDonough-Means S., Rubin R.A., Quig D., Geis E., Gehn E., Loresto M., Mitchell J., Atwood S., Barnhouse S., Lee W. Toxicological status of children with autism vs. neurotypical children and the association with autism severity. Biol Trace Elem Res 2013; 151(2): 171–180, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-012-9551-1.
53. Kresser C. Heavy metals and behavioral disorders in children. URL: https://chriskresser.com/heavy-metals-and-behavioral-disorders-in-children/.
54. Zayko O.A., Basnak’yan K.S. Problema vozdeystviya tyazhelykh metallov na neyrony golovnogo mozga, ikh razrushenie i dal’neyshee razvitie infantil’nogo autizma u detey. V kn.: Detstvo, otkrytoe miru. Sbornik materialov Vserossiyskoy nauchno-prakticheskoy konferentsii [The problem of the influence of heavy metals on brain neurons, their destruction and the further development of infantile autism in children. In: Childhood open to the world. Collection of materials of the All-Russian scientific-practical conference]. Omsk; 2019; p. 107–110.
55. Cheslack-Postava K., Rantakokko P.V., Hinkka-Yli-Salomäki S., Surcel H.M., McKeague I.W., Kiviranta H.A., Sourander A., Brown A.S. Maternal serum persistent organic pollutants in the Finnish prenatal study of autism: a pilot study. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2013; 38: 1–5, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ntt.2013.04.001.
56. Miodovnik A., Engel S.M., Zhu C., Ye X., Soorya L.V., Silva M.J., Calafat A.M., Wolff M.S. Endocrine disruptors and childhood social impairment. Neurotoxicology 2011; 32(2): 261–267, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2010.12.009.
57. Rossignol D.A., Genuis S.J., Frye R.E. Environmental toxicants and autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review. Transl Psychiatry 2014; 4(2): e360, https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2014.4.
58. Wolff J.J., Jacob S., Elison J.T. The journey to autism: insights from neuroimaging studies of infants and toddlers. Dev Psychopathol 2018; 30(2): 479–495, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579417000980.
59. Ecker C., Bookheimer S.Y., Murphy D.G.M. Neuroimaging in autism spectrum disorder: brain structure and function across the lifespan. The Lancet Neurology 2015; 14(11): 1121–1134, https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(15)00050-2.
60. Vivanti G., Rogers S.J. Autism and the mirror neuron system: insights from learning and teaching. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2014; 369(1644): 20130184, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0184.
61. Fatemi S.H., Aldinger K.A., Ashwood P., Bauman M.L., Blaha C.D., Blatt G.J., Chauhan A., Chauhan V., Dager S.R., Dickson P.E., Estes A.M., Goldowitz D., Heck D.H., Kemper T.L., King B.H., Martin L.A., Millen K.J., Mittleman G., Mosconi M.W., Persico A.M., Sweeney J.A., Webb S.J., Welsh J.P. Consensus paper: pathological role of the cerebellum in autism. Cerebellum 2012; 11(3): 777–807, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12311-012-0355-9.
62. Ha S., Sohn I.J., Kim N., Sim H.J., Cheon K.A. Characteristics of brains in autism spectrum disorder: structure, function and connectivity across the lifespan. Exp Neurobiol 2015; 24(4): 273–284, https://doi.org/10.5607/en.2015.24.4.273.
63. Jeste S.S., Tuchman R. Autism spectrum disorder and epilepsy: two sides of the same coin? J Child Neurol 2015; 30(14): 1963–1971, https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073815601501.
64. Zerbo O., Leong A., Barcellos L., Bernal P., Fireman B., Croen L.A. Immune mediated conditions in autism spectrum disorders. Brain Behav Immun 2015; 46: 232–236, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2015.02.001.
65. Roane H.S., Fisher W.W., Carr J.E. Applied behavior analysis as treatment for autism spectrum disorder. J Pediatr 2016; 175: 27–32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.04.023.
66. Encyclopedia of autism spectrum disorders. Volkmar F.R. (editor). Springer, New York, NY; 2013, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3.
67. Grigorenko E.L., Torres S., Lebedeva E.I., Bondar Y.A. Evidence-based interventions for ASD: a focus on applied behavior analysis (ABA) interventions. Psychology. Journal of the Higher School of Economics 2018; 15(4): 711–727, https://doi.org/10.17323/1813-8918-2018-4-711-727.
68. Schreibman L., Dawson G., Stahmer A.C., Landa R., Rogers S.J., McGee G.G., Kasari C., Ingersoll B., Kaiser A.P., Bruinsma Y., McNerney E., Wetherby A., Halladay A. Naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions: empirically validated treatments for autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2015; 45(8): 2411–2428, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2407-8.
69. Esterbruk S.A., Dreyfus A., Orlova E.A. Obuchenie uchashchikhsya s diagnozom “narusheniya autisticheskogo spectra” v obychnykh klassakh gosudarstvennykh shkol v Soedinennykh Shtatakh Ameriki. V kn.: Inklyuzivnoe obrazovanie: rezul’taty, opyt i perspektivy: sbornik materialov III Mezhdunarodnoy nauchno-prakticheskoy konferentsii [Teaching students with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in regular public school classes in the United States of America. In: Inclusive education: results, experience and prospects: a collection of materials of the III International scientific and practical conference]. Moscow: MGPPU; 2015; p.127–132.
70. Dawson G., Rogers S., Munson J., Smith M., Winter J., Greenson J., Donaldson A., Varley J. Randomized, controlled trial of an intervention for toddlers with autism: the Early Start Denver Model. Pediatrics 2010; 125(1): e17–e23, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0958.
71. Dawson G., Jones E.J., Merkle K., Venema K., Lowy R., Faja S., Kamara D., Murias M., Greenson J., Winter J., Smith M., Rogers S.J., Webb S.J. Early behavioral intervention is associated with normalized brain activity in young children with autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2012; 51(11): 1150–1159, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.018.
72. Zhou B., Xu Q., Li H., Zhang Y., Wang Y., Rogers S.J., Xu X. Effects of parent-implemented Early Start Denver Model intervention on Chinese toddlers with autism spectrum disorder: a non-randomized controlled trial. Autism Research 2018; 11(4): 654–666, https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1917.
73. Van Daalen E., Kemner C., Dietz C., Swinkels S.H., Buitelaar J.K., van Engeland H. Inter-rater reliability and stability of diagnoses of autism spectrum disorder in children identified through screening at a very young age. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009; 18(11): 663–674, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-009-0025-8.
74. Dawson-Squibb J.J., Davids E.L., de Vries P.J. Scoping the evidence for EarlyBird and EarlyBird Plus, two United Kingdom-developed parent education training programmes for autism spectrum disorder. Autism 2019; 23(3): 542–555, https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361318760295.
75. Soprovozhdenie, obuchenie i vospitanie lits s RAS: obzor zarubezhnogo opyta [Support, training and education of people with ASD: a review of foreign experience]. Pod red. Alekhina S.V. [Alekhina S.V. (editor)]. Moscow: FRTs FGBOU VO MGPPU; 2016.
76. O’Rourke J. Inclusive schooling: if it’s so good — why is it so hard to sell? International Journal of Inclusive Education 2015; 19(5): 530–546, https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2014.954641.
77. National Council for Special Education (NCSE). URL: https://www.education.ie/en/The-Department/Agencies/ National-Council-for-Special-Education-NCSE-.html.
78. Kinnunen T. Validation of non-formal and informal learning with autism spectrum disorder: Finnish workshop as vocational learning environment. Jyväskylä; 2015.
79. Makushkin E.V., Baybarina E.N., Chumakova O.V., Demcheva N.K. Fundamental tasks and problems of protecting the mental health of children in Russia. Psihiatriya 2015; 4(68): 5–11.
80. Akbaeva D.Zh., Bobrova V.V. The rate of people with autism spectrum disorder in world and alternative methods for its correction and treatment 2019; 1: 54–58.
81. Alekhina S.V. Development of comprehensive care system for children with autism spectrum disorders in Russia: one project experience. Autizm i narushenie razvitiya 2016; 14(4): 10–13.
82. Kompleksnaya mediko-sotsial’naya i psikhologo-pedagogicheskaya pomoshch’ detyam s rasstroystvami autisticheskogo spektra. Informatsionno-metodicheskiy sbornik [Comprehensive medical, social, psychological and pedagogical assistance to children with autism spectrum disorders. Informational and methodological collection]. Smolensk: Smolenskaya gorodskaya tipografiya; 2016.
83. Robins D.L., Fein D., Barton M. Modified checklist for autism in toddlers, revised with follow-up (M-CHAT-R/F)™. URL: https://mchatscreen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/ 09/M-CHAT-R_F_Rev_Aug2018.pdf.
84. Canal-Bedia R., García-Primo P., Martín-Cilleros M.V., Santos-Borbujo J., Guisuraga-Fernández Z., Herráez-García L., Herráez-García Mdel M., Boada-Muñoz L., Fuentes-Biggi J., Posada-de la Paz M. Modified checklist for autism in toddlers: cross-cultural adaptation and validation in Spain. J Autism Dev Disord 2011; 41(10): 1342–1351, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1163-z.
85. Seung H.K., Ji J., Kim S.J., Sung I., Youn Y.A., Hong G., Lee H., Lee Y.H., Lee H., Youm H.K. Examination of the Korean modified checklist of autism in toddlers: item response theory. J Autism Dev Disord 2015; 45(9): 2744–2757, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2439-0.
86. Makasheva V.A. Rasprostranennost’ rasstroystv autisticheskogo spektra: skrining, regional’nyy registr. Rol’ meditsinskogo psikhologa v lechebno-diagnosticheskom i reabilitatsionnom protsesse. V kn.: Sovremennye problemy klinicheskoy psikhologii i psikhologii lichnosti [Autism morbidity: screening, regional registration. The role of a medical psychologist in the processes of diagnostic and rehabilitation. In: Modern problems of clinical psychology and personality psychology]. Novosibirsk: Novosibirskiy natsional’nyy issledovatel’skiy gosudarstvennyy universitet; 2017; p. 75–84.
87. Ivanov M.V., Simashkova N.V., Kozlovskaya G.V., Tyapkova N.A. Clinical and psychological approaches to prophylaxis of mental health disorders in early childhood. Psihiatriya 2015; 3(67): 22–27.
88. Ivanov M.V., Simashkova N.V., Kozlovskaya G.V., Makushkin E.V. The epidemiologic study of the risk of autism spectrum disorders in children of 16–24 months in Russia, 2015–2016. Zhurnal nevrologii i psikhiatrii im. S.S. Korsakova 2018; 118(5–2): 12–19, https://doi.org/10.17116/jnevro20181185212.
89. Simashkova N.V., Makushin E.V. Rasstroystva autisticheskogo spektra: diagnostika, lechenie, nablyudenie: klinicheskie rekomendatsii (protokol lecheniya) [Autism spectrum disorders: diagnostics, treatment, observation: clinical recommendations (treatment protocol)]. Kazan; 2015.
90. Morozova S. Osnovnye aspekty ispol’zovaniya ABA pri autizme [Key aspects of using АВА for autism]. Moscow; 2013.
91. Morozov S.A. Kompleksnoe soprovozhdenie lits s rasstroystvami autisticheskogo spektra [Comprehensive support for people with autism spectrum disorders]. Moscow; 2015.
92. Nikolskaya O.S. Treating autism with communication. Autizm i narushenie razvitiya 2016; 14(4): 35–38.
93. Lord C., Wagner A., Rogers S., Szatmari P., Aman M., Charman T., Dawson G., Durand V.M., Grossman L., Guthrie D., Harris S., Kasari C., Marcus L., Murphy S., Odom S., Pickles A., Scahill L., Shaw E., Siegel B., Sigman M., Stone W., Smith T., Yoder P. Challenges in evaluating psychosocial interventions for autistic spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 2005; 35(6): 695–708, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-0017-6.
94. Sorokin A.B., Zotova M.A., Korovina N.Y. Screening methods for identification of the target group autism spectrum for special education teachers and psychologists. Psikhologicheskaya nauka i obrazovanie 2016; 21(3): 7–15.
95. García-Primo P., Hellendoorn A., Charman T., Roeyers H., Dereu M., Roge B., Baduel S., Muratori F., Narzisi A., Van Daalen E., Moilanen I., de la Paz M.P., Canal-Bedia R. Screening for autism spectrum disorders: state of the art in Europe. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2014; 23(11): 1005–1021, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0555-6.
96. Van Heijst B.F.C., Geurts H.M. Quality of life in autism across the lifespan: a meta-analysis. Autism 2015; 19(2): 158–167, https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313517053.
97. Nicolaidis C., Kripke C.C., Raymaker D. Primary care for adults on the autism spectrum. Med Clin North Am 2014; 98(5): 1169–1191, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2014.06.011.
98. Kumar B., Prakash A., Sewal R.K., Medhi B., Modi M. Drug therapy in autism: a present and future perspective. Pharmacol Rep 2012; 64(6): 1291–1304, https://doi.org/10.1016/s1734-1140(12)70927-1.
99. Lord C., Bailey A. Autism spectrum disorders. In: Rutter M.J. Rutter’s child and adolescent psychiatry. John Wiley & Sons; 2011; p. 636–663.
100. Doyle C.A., McDougle C.J. Pharmacologic treatments for the behavioral symptoms associated with autism spectrum disorders across the lifespan. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2012; 14(3): 263–279.
101. Boser K.I., Goodwin M.S., Wayland S.C. Technology tools for students with autism: innovations that enhance independence and learning. Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company; 2014.

Bozhkova E.D., Balandina О.V., Konovalov А.А. Autism Spectrum Disorders: State-of-the-Art (Review). Sovremennye tehnologii v medicine 2020; 12(2): 111, https://doi.org/10.17691/stm2020.12.2.14